1. Define the following terms:
a) 12-D concept (2 marks)
b) Hurdle effect (2 marks)
c) Indicator organisms of quality and safety (3 marks)

2. a) Explain how the substrate influences the heat resistance of microorganisms. (6 marks)
b) Explain how previous history of microorganisms influences their heat susceptibility (8 marks)

3. a) Discuss the effect of the following factors on microbial growth in foods and categorize microorganisms depending on the conditions.
i) Water activity (4 marks)
ii) pH (4 marks)
iii) Oxidation-reduction potential (4 marks)
b) Discuss how the following factors are utilized in the control of microorganisms in food.

i) Low-temperature storage (4 marks)
ii) Modified atmosphere storage (4 marks)
iii) Lactoperoxidase system (5 marks)

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